MARQUEURS BIOLOGIQUES
DE LA MALADIE D ALZHEIMER.
par Didier Lefranc
1 - INTRODUCTION :
Dans l'état actuel de nos connaissances, il n'existe pas "un"
marqueur du diagnostic de MA. Depuis plus d'une décennie, grâce
aux progrès de la biologie et des techniques d'imagerie, un nombre
considérable de travaux ont été publiés dans
ce domaine avec le plus souvent des résultats jugés statistiquement
significatifs. Néanmoins, les résultats montrent un chevauchement
important entre les populations de patients possédant les critères
de maladie d'Alzheimer "probable" et les sujets utilisés
comme contrôles. Ceci est dû, d'une part à la présence
d'environ 20% de "faux diagnostics positifs" dans la population
étudiée (Tierney et al., 1988) et d'autre part, à
la présence dans la population dite "contrôle" de
patients atteints d'une maladie d'Alzheimer à un stade encore asymptomatique.
Ces résultats obtenus sur des groupes sont très significatifs
mais ils ne sont pas applicables à un individu donné.
5. Autres "candidats" pour le diagnostic de la maladie.
5.1°) Protéases et anti-protéases:
Il existerait dans la maladie d'Alzhiemer un déséquilibre
des systèmes protéases-antiprotéases. Notre étude
(Furby et al. 1991) n'a pas confirmé le résultat obtenu par
Matsubara et al. (1990) qui montrait une différence significative
du taux d'alpha1 antichymotrypsine entre M.A. et population contrôle,
ainsi qu'entre M.A. et maladie de Parkinson ou démence de type vasculaire.
Depuis, d'autres équipes ont corroboré nos observations (Pirtilla
et al., 1994) alors que d'autres confirment les résultats de Matsubara
et al. et les étendent au sérum(Licastro et al., 1995)
Par ailleurs, Sutton et al. (1994) se sont interessé au PA-1
(Plasminogen Activator inhibitor 1). Ils constate là encore que
ce potentiel marqueur n'est en fait qu'un indicateur non-spécific
d'un désordre neurologique. D'autres systèmes enzymatiques
ont été investis par certains auteurs (Businaro et al., 1992;
Fetsoff et al., 1992) sans obtenir de résultats concluant.
5.2°) Les métaux et protéines
associées:
Parmi les métaux, l'aluminium et le zinc ont surtout été
considérés. Tout d'abord l'aluminium est retrouvé
dans les plaques séniles et les lésions de dégénérescence
neurofibrillaire., il est impliqué dans l'augmentation de fréquence
d'une pathologie nommé complexe de Guam et des lésions neuronales
peuvent être induite par administration d'aluminium chez des lapins
(Klatzo et al., 1965) et on lui a attribué un potentiel rôle
neurotoxique. Les différentes approches utilisés pour doser
et quantifier cet élément ont abordé, outre le tissu
nerveux, le LCR et le plasma. Les résultats obtenus sont peu significatifs.
Outre les différences dans les unités rapportées (Kapaki
et al.,1993) la majorité des études réalisées
ne présentent que des résultats non signifactifs qu'il s'agisse
de plasma ou de LCR (pour revue, voir Basun et al., 1991). Seuls Delaney
et al.(1979) décrivent des concentrations diminuées de Al
dans le LCR de sujets atteints de MA. En ce qui concerne le Zinc, il a
surtout été impliqué en tant qu'élément
modulateur de la réponse aux acides aminés excitateurs. Dans
le LCR des concentrations élevées (Hersey et al., 1983; Sahu
et al., 1988) aussi bien que diminuées (Kapaki et al.,1989) ont
été rapportées. Les résultats obtenus dans
le plasma sont également équivoques (pour revue voir Basun
et al., 1991). Les autres éléments et métaux ont également
été considérés toutjours avec des résultats
non significatifs (Basun et al., 1991).
Plus intéressant sont les résultats obtenus avec les protéines
associées. En effet, récemment une protéine du groupe
des protéines liant le Fer (groupe auquel appartient la lactotransferrine,
la séro-transferrine et l'ovotransferrine), la mélanotransferrine
ou p97 a été proposée comme potentiel marqueur sérique
de la MA (Kennard et al., 1996). En effet, des travaux préliminaires
avaient montrés que cette p97 n'était exprimée que
dans les cellules microgliales associées à des dépôts
amyloïdes rencontrés au cours de la MA. Les résultats
du dosage de la protéines sérique mais également de
sa forme intrathécale montrent une augmentation significative de
la concentration de cette p97. Les auteurs montrent également qu'il
ne s'agit pas là d'une manifestations généralisables
aux autres transporteurs du Fer et précise que cette augmentation
devrait être visible 2 ans avant les manifestations cliniques de
la MA. D'autre part, il semblerait qu'il n'y ait pas de chevauchement entre
les concentrations intrathécales de p97 chez les témoins
et les patients atteints de MA, donc une spécificité de 100%.
Cette dernière constatation en ferait donc un marqueur de la MA
précoce et spécifique. Cependant les populations impliquées
dans cette étude ne comprennent que peu de sujets et aucune autre
forme de troubles neurologiques. Il faudra attendre une confirmation par
d'autres équipes sur une population plus large et éventuellement
plus diversifiée. D'autres résultats concernant un dosage
de la ceruloplasmine (une protéine impliquée dans les mécanismes
d'oxydation par conversion de Fe2+ en Fe3+) et la transferrine (Loeffler
et al., 1994) ou de la ferritine (Kuiper et al., 1994) tendent à
confimer le fait que la transferrine n'est pas affectée alors que
d'autre système pourrait l'être. Néanmoins, lees résultats
présentés dans ces études restent discutables.
5.3°) Implication immunologique et marqueurs de l'inflammation:
La participation du système immunitaire est clairement établie
dans la MA (McRae et al. 1988, 1991). Certains anticorps présents
dans le LCR des patients atteints de MA reconnaissent des neurones cholinergiques
(Fillit et al. 1985; McRae et al. 1987) mais également d'autres
structures antigéniques comme les cellules microgliales du SNC de
rat nouveau-né (McRae et al. 1991, 1993) et de biopsies corticales
humaines (Mc Rae et al., 1996) ou pour certains LCR, la thyroglobuline
(McRae et al. 1988). Par ailleurs, le LCR de certains patients atteints
de MA serait capable de ralentir la destruction des cellules cholinergiques
en culture induites par des anticorps dirigés contre les récepteurs
au NGF, évoquant ainsi un rôle neuroprotecteur du LCR dans
la MA. L'analyse des facteurs intervenant dans la cascade du complément
tel que le C1q dans le sérum n'a fourni quant à elle que
des résultats non significatifs contrairement aux données
recueillies dans le LCR où une diminution du taux de C1q serait
corrélée au satut cognitif des patients. Néanmoins,
cela ne semble pas pouvoir constituer un moyen de discriminer efficacement
les patients atteints de MA. Il était impossible d'envisager l'implication
du système immunitaire sans perler des interleukines. En effet,
les différentes études réalisées dans le LCR
présentent soit des concentration élevées de Il-1
et Il-6 au cours de la MA (Blum-Degen et al., 1995), soit des concentrations
plus basses d'Il-6 (Yamada et al., 1995) ou encore des concentrations inchangées
(Pirtilla et al., 1994) L'augmentation significative du taux sérique
de Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) (Fillit et al., 1991) témoignait
également de l'inflammation retrouvée dans la maladie d'Alzheimer
par exemple au niveau des plaques séniles, mais.ces résultats
ont été récemment infirmés (Alvarez et al.,
1996).
LES AUTOANTICORPS
DANS LA MALADIE D'ALZHEIMER
5.4°) Autres marqueurs périphériques:
a) La GFAP:
Il a été décrit une réaction
gliale intense dans le cortex de sujets atteints de MA (Delacourte
et al., 1990). On pouvait donc considérer la Glial Fibrillary Acidic
Protein comme un potentiel marqueur. Les résultats présentés
dans la littérature (Noppe et al., 1986; Wallin et al., 1996) montrent
qu'il existe bien une concentration de GFAP plus élevée dans
le LCR de patients atteints de MA, mais cette variation se rencontre également
dans d'autres pathologies (Mori et al., 1976; Rosengren et al., 1994)
b) La Glutamine syntethase:
Un rapport de Gunnersen et Haley présentait une protéine
de 42 kDa comme potentiel marqueur de la MA. En effet, ils montrent qu'une
protéine liant l'ATP est présente dans 39/39 LCR de patients
atteints de MA alors qu'un seul sujet témoin ne la possède.
Cette protéine a été identifiée: il s'agit
de la glutamine syntethase. Cette enzyme joue un role dans l'élimination
de l'ammoniac libre et réalise aussi la conversion du Glutamate
en glutamine.
c) Les énolases spécifiques des neurones:
Ces enzymes glycolytiques spécifiques des neurones ont été
également évaluées comme marqueur de la MA. Alors
que certains auteurs ne pouvait que constater un lien avec la démence
(Blennow et al., 1994), d'autres suggéraient qu'elles ne pouvaient
constituer une aide dans l'évaluation du degré de démencec
puisque rencontrées à des niveaux comparables chez les Alzheimers
et les témoins (Parnetti et al.,1995). d) Autres marqueurs potentiels:
Plusieurs autres pistes dans la course au marqueur périphérique
ont été testées sans aboutir à des résultats
spécifiques ou même significatifs. Citons le delta sleep-inducing
peptide (Ernst et al., 1987); l'endothéline-1 (Yoshizawa et al.,
1992); la Chromogranine A (O'Connor et al., 1993); les sulfates inorganiques
plasmatiques (Edwards et al., 1993); les dipepetidyl peptidases (Aoyagi
et al., 1993); le NGF (Murase et al., 1993); la Laminine (Kittur et al.,
1993); la phosphatase acide (Omar et al., 1993); le composant amyloïde
P (Hawkins et al., 1994) et le pyruvate (Parnetti et al., 1995).
5.5°) Marqueurs non liquidiens:
De nombreuses anomalies ont été rapportées touchant
notamment la déformabilité membranaire des plaquettes (Zubenko
et al. 1987), les globules rouges (Butterfield et al. 1985), les lymphocytes
(Fischman et al. 1984), les fibroblastes en culture (Perret et al. 1990).
L'augmentation de la déformabilité plaquettaire serait présente
chez 50% des patients atteints de maladie d'Alzheimer (Zubenko et al.,
1988) et caractériserait un sous-groupe de la maladie ayant début
plus précoce et une évolution plus rapide. Récemment,
ces travaux prometteurs viennent d'être infirmés (Kukull et
al. 1992): une comparaison de 95 patients alzheimériens par rapport
à 133 témoins d'âge et de sexe similaires indique qu'il
n'y a pas d'augmentation de la fluidité des membranes plaquettaires
chez les malades. Le développement des techniques d'études
du métabolisme énergétique a permis d'observer des
modifications morphologiques et biochimiques de la chaine respiratoire
mitochondriale. En 1989, Trounce et al. démontraient une corrélation
négative entre le quotient respiratoire et l'âge au niveau
des muscles squelettiques. Chez certains patients, l'activité du
CoQ10 était diminuée d'environ 50% par rapport à la
moyenne des sujets contrôles (Mariani et al. 1991). Dans le cadre
de marqueur non liquidien, il en est un qui consiste en l'analyse d'une
réaction pupillaire à un agent antagoniste de la choline,
le tropicamide. Le test se résumerait donc à une mesure de
la dilatation pupillaire après instillation de ce composé
(Scinto et al., 1994). Néanmoins les résultats publiés
ultérieurement semble minorer cette conclusion (Livan et al., 1996;
Fitzsimon et al., 1997).
L'ensemble de ces travaux montre qu'il n'existe pas de marqueur périphérique
fiable de la MA. Le diagnostic de MA ne peut s'appuyer, lorsque le contexte
clinique est évocateur, que sur des arguments paracliniques de présomption.
Ces études renseignent essentiellement sur la pathogénie
et rendent compte de l'hétérogénéité
biologique de la maladie. Toutefois, à cause d'une faible sensibilité
et de leur complexité, ces résultats sont peu utiles pour
l'élaboration d'un test applicable en pratique quotidienne.
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