MARQUEURS BIOLOGIQUES
DE LA MALADIE D ALZHEIMER.
par Didier Lefranc
I] INTRODUCTION :
Dans l'état actuel de nos connaissances, il n'existe pas "un"
marqueur du diagnostic de MA. Depuis plus d'une décennie, grâce
aux progrès de la biologie et des techniques d'imagerie, un nombre
considérable de travaux ont été publiés dans
ce domaine avec le plus souvent des résultats jugés statistiquement
significatifs. Néanmoins, les résultats montrent un chevauchement
important entre les populations de patients possédant les critères
de maladie d'Alzheimer "probable" et les sujets utilisés
comme contrôles. Ceci est dû, d'une part à la présence
d'environ 20% de "faux diagnostics positifs" dans la population
étudiée (Tierney et al., 1988) et d'autre part, à
la présence dans la population dite "contrôle" de
patients atteints d'une maladie d'Alzheimer à un stade encore asymptomatique.
Ces résultats obtenus sur des groupes sont très significatifs
mais ils ne sont pas applicables à un individu donné.
II] ETAT DE LA QUESTION :
1. Marqueurs en rapport avec la dégénérescence
neurofibrillaire.
Les paires hélicoïdales de filaments (PHF), caractéristiques
de la dégénérescence neurofibrillaire (DNF), sont
retrouvées au sein des enchevêtrements neurofibrillaires,
au pourtour des plaques neuritiques au sein des neurones dystrophiques
et dans les fibres incurvées dispersées dans le neuropile.
Les constituants antigèniques principaux des PHF sont des protéines
Tau anormalement phosphorylées nommées suivant leur poids
moléculaire Tau 55, 64 et 69 (Brion et al., 1985; Delacourte et
al., 1986). Ce triplet correspond à A68 (Wolozin et al., 1986) à
ADAP (Alzheimer's Disease Associated Protein) (Ghanbari et al., 1990) ou
aux Tau-PHF décrits par d'autres auteurs (Goedert, 1993). Certains
antigènes présents au sein des PHF comme l'ubiquitine (Mori
et al., 1987) sont retrouvés dans le LCR en quantité plus
élevée dans la maladie d'Alzheimer (Wisniewski et al., 1989;
Wang et al., 1991; Kudo et al., 1994). Malheureusement, par leur caractère
ubiquitaire, le dosage de ces protéines ne montrent que des différences
quantitatives peu spécifiques (Manaka et al., 1992).
Récemment, une protéine de 21 kD, nommée "neuronal
thread protein (NTP)" et surexprimée dans des homogénats
de cerveaux de patients atteints de la maladie d'Alzheimer, semble être
détectée en quantité plus importante dans le LCR des
patients (de la Monte et al., 1992; Chong et al., 1992). L'origine et les
propriétés biochimiques de cette protéine ne sont
encore que partiellement connues (Blennow et al., 1995a). La concentration
d'ADAP détecté par ALZ-50 est significativement plus élevée
dans le LCR des patients atteints de maladie d'Alzheimer que chez les sujets
contrôles, avec là aussi un chevauchement important des résultats
(Ghanbari et al., 1991). Enfin, deux rapports de l'équipe de Wisniewski
indiquaient que les quantités d'antigènes liés aux
PHFs (Mehta et al. 1985; Wisniewski, 1988) étaient plus élevées
dans le LCR des patients atteints de M.A, avec un chevauchement important
avec les contrôles du même âge.
Finalement, la présence d'antigènes liés aux PHF
et par là même de protéines Tau dans le LCR, jusque
là suggérée, a été établie avec
le dosage en ELISA mis au point par Innogenetics (Vandermereen et al.,
1993). Depuis, de nombreux travaux ont été réalisés
à l'aide de techniques ELISA très sensibles utilisant des
sondes monoclonales et polyclonales dirigées contre les protéines
Tau. Ces anticorps reconnaissent des épitopes indépendants
de la phosphorylation. L'examen des données de la littérature
montre qu'en fait seuls 3 test différents ont été
développés et utilisés par d'autres équipes.Dans
le sérum, le dosage de protéines Tau reste à ce jour
totalement inexploitable (Blennow K et al., 1995b).
Dans le liquide céphalorachidien, les différents
résultats présentés dans la littérature tendent
à montrer une augmentation significative de la concentration des
protéines Tau dans le LCR de patients atteints de MA. Néanmoins,
les valeurs fournies varient selon les tests développés de
40 pg/ml à 820 pg/ml pour des patients répondant aux critères
de MA probable et de 27 pg/ml à 380 pg/ml chez les sujets sains
(Arai H et al., 1995; Blennow K et al., 1995b; Galasko D. et al.,1997;
Hock C et al. 1995; Isoe K et al., 1996; Jensen M et al.,1995; Mori H et
al., 1995; Munroe WA et al., 1995; Riemenschneider M et al., 1996; Rösler
N et al., 1996; Skoog I et al, .1995; Tato RE et al., 1995; Vandermeeren
M et al, .1993; Vigo-Pelfrey C et al., 1995a, 1995b). Cependant une majorité
d'auteurs s'accordent sur la valeur limite de 200 pg/ml au dessus de laquelle
se rencontre la majorité des patients atteints de MA.
Une étude récente (Blennow K et al., 1995b) montre que
le dosage des protéines Tau-PHF s'avère moins spécifique
encore. Dans ce travail, les valeurs trouvées sont anormalement
élevées mais peuvent s'expliquer par les différences
d'affinité de l'anticorps pour les protéines Tau intrathécales.
Ceci mériterait une confirmation ultérieure par d'autres
équipes. Finalement, la problèmatique actuelle réside
en la discrimination entre MA et autres pathologies dégénératives.
En effet, qu'il s'agisse de démence vasculaire ou de démence
neurodégénérative présentant une pathologie
Tau, les valeurs observées sont souvent assimilables à celles
trouvées chez les sujets atteints de MA. La spécificité
et la sensibilité de ces tests restent souvent insuffisantes. Si
tous ces résultats sont jugés statistiquement significatifs,
ils ne peuvent donc encore constituer une aide au diagnostic fiable pour
le clinicien. Il semblerait que l'augmentation de protéines Tau
dans le LCR ne soit pas le reflet d'un processus de dégénérescence
neuronale de type Alzheimer avec formation de PHF. Le fait même de
trouver des protéines Tau dans le LCR de sujets sains laisse à
penser qu'il existe, au moins en partie, un processus normal voire physiologique
de 'relargage' des protéines Tau dans le LCR. D'autre part, les
concentrations de protéines Tau dans le LCR sont élevées
chez certains patients (démence vasculaire, intoxication au monoxyde
de carbone, accident vasculaire cérébral), suggérant
que la souffrance et/ou la mort neuronale est reponsable de l'augmentation
de la concentration de protéines Tau dans le LCR.
On pouvait donc attendre beaucoup de la caractérisation des proteines
Tau intrathécales. Néanmoins, les résultats publiés
se trouvent être hétérogènes ou discordant.
Les premier résultats publiés en 1987 (Wolozin and Davies,
1987) en utilisant du LCR non-concentré et des techniques de détection
peu sensibles ne permettaient pas d'affirmer que le marquage obtenu était
spécifique de protéines Tau intrathécales. Dans les
études qui ont suivies certains auteurs ont montré la présence
d'un variant unique de 55 kDa (Vigo-Pelfrey C et al., 1995) alors que d'autres
décrivent un triplet Tau 55, 64, 69 kDa similaire à celui
rencontré dans le tissu cérébral (Arai H et al., 1995).
Plus récement, G.Johnson et al. (1997) ont montré que les
variants retrouvés dans le LCR sont essentiellement des fragments
tronqués ne possédant que la partie N-terminale des protéines
Tau. Les divergences constatés entre ces travaux sont pour une part
dûes aux sondes immunologiques utilisées mais d'autres éléments
doivent être pris en compte. Ainsi, Vigo-Pelfrey C. et al. [79] et
Johnson G. et al. [40] utilisent des sondes et des techniques similaires
mais parviennent cependant à des résultats sans recoupement.
On ne peut ici ni incriminer la sensibilité de la méthodologie
ni la qualité des sondes. Seules les populations étudiées
sont différentes mais ne devraient pas présenter de telles
variations. Cependant, quelque soit l'étude, l'observation intéressante
est que la nature des fragments décrits ne diffèrent pas
d'une population de patients atteints de MA à une population de
sujets sains ou atteints d'autres pathologies neurologiques, suggérant
qu'un processus normal ( à savoir l'élimination de fragments
de protéines Tau dans le LCR) est exacerbé au cours de pathologies
entrainant une mort ou un stress neuronal. Par ailleurs le travail d'Araï
et al. [1] a été réalisé a partir de LCR non
concentré en immuno-empreinte. Si l'on en croit leur méthodologie,
la quantité de protéines Tau déposée laisse
à penser qu'ils disposent d'une méthode de détection
en immunoempreinte aussi sensible que l'ELISA. Se donc alors le problème
de la spécificité du marquage qu'ils observent. Ceci montre
la complexité du travail de caractérisation des protéines
Tau intrathécales et prouve l'intérêt voire la nécessité
de disposer de nouvelles sondes immunologiques sensibles et spécifiques,
capables de dicerner spécifiquement la MA.
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